Time was when a Formica plaque could often be found on the desk of a certain type of negotiator. It said “Yea, when I walk through the Valley of the Shadow of Death I shall fear no evil, for I am the meanest son of a bitch in the valley.” But is it really to your advantage to have a reputation as one of the junkyard dogs of negotiation? The authors approach the question from three very different starting points. Tinsley summarizes the research on reputation in controlled settings. Schneider turns to real-life reputations of lawyers in action. Finally, Cambria shows how the life-and-death negotiations which characterize the word of the New York Police Department's Hostage Negotiation Team have led to a new understanding of reputation.

Research evidence across a number of disciplines and fields has shown that women can encounter both social and financial backlash when they behave assertively, for example, by asking for resources at the bargaining table. But this backlash appears to be most evident when a gender stereotype that prescribes communal, nurturing behavior by women is activated. In situations in which this female stereotype is suppressed, backlash against assertive female behavior is attenuated. We review several contexts in which stereotypic expectations of females are more dormant or where assertive behavior by females can be seen as normative. We conclude with prescriptions from this research that suggest how women might attenuate backlash at the bargaining table and with ideas about how to teach these issues of gender and backlash to student populations in order to make students, both male and female, more aware of their own inclination to backlash and how to rectify such inequities from both sides of the bargaining table.

The authors use the extraordinary 2008 phenomenon of female presidential and vice-presidential candidates in both of the main U.S. political parties to examine what obstacles remain for women, as they seek to negotiate access to the highest roles in society - and not just governmental roles. After detailing how Hillary Clinton and Sarah Palin fell foul of one or the other of a matched pair of "gotchas" in how people evaluate ambitious women, they outline a strategy for negotiating gender that is relevant for all female professionals advancing in their careers.

Time was when a Formica plaque could often be found on the desk of a certain type of negotiator. It said "Yea, when I walk through the Valley of the Shadow of Death I shall fear no evil, for I am the meanest son of a bitch in the valley." Is it really to your advantage to have a reputation as one of the junkyard dogs of negotiation? The authors approach the question from three very different starting points. Tinsley summarizes the research on reputation in controlled settings. Schneider turns to real-life reputations of lawyers in action. Finally, Cambria shows how the life-and-death negotiations which characterize the work of the New York Police Department's Hostage Negotiation Team have led to a new understanding of reputation.

How do norms evolve to influence behavior over time? The global COVID-19 pandemic introduced immense uncertainty; six months into the pandemic witnessed no foreseeable ending and no available vaccine. Given that people could not quarantine indefinitely, they needed to develop new social norms, rules of appropriate behavior. Across eight weeks, we tracked the behavior of university students as they returned from lockdown to campus at an east coast university. Students' behavior is associated with both 1) social learning (what they saw others doing) and 2) experiential learning (reflecting on the perceived risk associated with their own past behavior). Social learning affects three types of discretionary activities outside of the home: exercising, socializing in smaller groups, and attending larger events. Controlling for a number of factors, regression results show that the more students see or hear about others doing one of these activities, the more likely they are to engage in that activity the following week. We call this gradual increase in precarious activity, “risk creep.” A creeping tolerance for risk for two of these activities also occurs within an experiential learning paradigm. Specifically, the riskier students judge their prior week's behavior (which, on average, had little negative consequence), the more likely they are to leave their home the following week for exercise and large events. Together our results suggest that norms for discretionary activities evolve over time based on both social learning cues and experiential reflection of risk and consequences.#Significance:How do norms evolve? During the pandemic, post-lockdown and pre-vaccine, it was not clear which behaviors were appropriate. Across eight weeks, we tracked people's behaviors and perceptions to understand how risk perceptions, sensemaking, and decisions evolved over time. First, we establish a record of behavior outside of the home during this time. Second, we analyze correlates between these behaviors, observed norms, and perceptions of risk over time. Behavior is associated with both 1) social learning (what they saw others doing) and 2) experiential learning (reflecting on the perceived risk associated with their own past behavior). Both social and experiential learning are associated with a gradual increase in precarious activity, what we call “risk creep.”

Due to the growth of discount travel intermediaries such as Priceline, researchers have become interested in customer reactions to brokered ultimatum bargaining contexts. In this study, utilizing justice theory, we examine how procedural variations in a brokered ultimatum game (BUG) affect customer perceptions of informational and distributive justice. We also examine the degree to which justice perceptions affect customer behavior (repatronage) and attitudes (willingness to recommend the service to others). We find that offer acceptance/rejection and an enriched/non-enriched explanation exhibit direct effects on informational and distributive justice perceptions. We also find an interactive effect, such that, when an offer is rejected, justice perceptions can be improved through the use of an enriched explanation. Finally, we find that informational and distributive justice perceptions exhibit unique effects on repatronage behavior and the willingness to recommend the service to others.

In this study, we test the impact of national origin on intentions to shame and to seek revenge in response to a normative conflict. As expected, Chinese managers showed a stronger desire to shame and teach a moral lesson compared to American managers. Contrary to expectations, Americans were no more likely than the Chinese to express a desire for revenge. Results also showed that Americans were more likely to choose a direct approach in response to the conflict, compared to the Chinese managers, and the Chinese managers were more likely to use an indirect approach. These data are consistent with previous research suggesting that shaming is a more common form of social control in more collectivistic compared to more individualistic societies (Creighton, 1990; Demos, 1996), but inconsistent with cross-cultural theories which suggest that interpersonal harmony is more important in a collectivistic culture (Leung, 1997; Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Triandis, 1988).

The backlash effect is a well-documented negative reaction toward women who are perceived as counter-stereotypical because they engage in "masculine" behaviors during the performance of their jobs. In four negotiation studies we explore the backlash effect in greater depth than previous studies by identifying key factors that affect the propensity for backlash against female negotiators. In particular, our results suggest that executives, who have salient mental models of assertive, successful women, use those exemplars as referents when evaluating the behavior of others. This exemplar is consistent with expectations that women are assertive, thus we find that executives tend not to backlash against assertive women. On the other hand, students in whom this exemplar is less salient, rely on core gender stereotypes in the evaluation of targets, and thus we find that they tend to backlash against assertive women for behaving counter-stereotypically. We then demonstrate that these schemas can be reversed in both populations. By imposing threat we induce executives to draw upon core gender stereotypes leading them to backlash against assertive behavior in women. By making the successful businesswoman exemplar salient in students we observe them using this exemplar as a referent and subsequently accepting the assertive behavior of women.

We develop and test a theoretical framework for understanding how cognitive and affective processes (cognitive and affective integration) influence the way in which disagreements (task and process) among group members affect their performance (individual and group level performance). We use this framework to explain how and why diversity may be either beneficial or detrimental to group process and outcomes. Specifically, we examine how group faultlines may hinder members' ability to create a shared understanding of the problem (cognitive integration) and a shared motivation to synthesize their knowledge (affective integration). If this happens, then groups will fail to share and process information, which will hinder group performance and satisfaction. We test this theory on 321 MBA students in 88 five to six person teams from a prestigious East Coast university.

In two experiments, we show clear evidence of a 'near miss' bias, in that when people receive information about prior near miss events (events that could have had a positive or negative outcome, where the outcome was non-fatal) they subsequently make riskier decisions than those who receive no near miss information. We explain the near miss bias as a discounting of given probability information such that people fail to see the independence of events. In Experiment 2, we show that when probability information is made salient and the decision makers attend to this probability information as the basis for their decision, the near miss bias goes away. In Experiment 2, we also see that when people have near miss information they search significantly less for information, even when that information is costless. Results are discussed in terms of accident prevention, Bayesian updating, and the normalization of deviance.