Activists, particularly those based in the global South, have accumulated a wealth of experience in dealing with a range of transnational networks operating in diverse issue areas. New theoretical understandings have reflected this accumulating experience. As the twentieth century came to a close, the practice of global and transnational politics was undergoing a sea change. Understandings of its dynamics were changing along with the practice. Classic paradigms of international relations, which had focused almost exclusively on relations among nation-states, were being expanded to consider the impact of transnational civil society organizations. Recognition of the role of new nonstate actors in global politics was epitomized by the impact of Margaret Keck and Kathryn Sikkink’s Activists beyond Borders in 1998. Their framework is a foundational reference point for the analyses of recent and future trends that are set out in this book. This volume brings together a set of ten essays by reflective activists who draw on their experience to provide new insights into what has been happening in the world of transnational advocacy, and by engaged academics who are committed to using the tools of their disciplines to contribute to the same agenda. The essays reflect not only the views of individual authors but also the collective dialogue among the authors at the workshop where the papers were originally presented in the spring of 2015.

Understanding why inequality is so great and has persevered for centuries in a number of Latin American countries requires tools that go beyond economics. Investigating the case of Peru, this book explores how inequality is embedded in institutions that constitute the interface between the economy, the polity and geography of the country.

Con el fin del último boom extractivo terminaron dos décadas de bonanza económica en el Perú. ¿Supimos aprovechar este periodo de ingresos extraordinarios para sentar las bases de un desarrollo sostenible? ¿En qué medida el auge extractivo ha impulsado o dado forma a cambios en la institucionalidad del país? De considerarse positivos, ¿son sostenibles? ¿Hasta qué punto estos cambios han incidido en la reducción de desigualdades multidimensionales en la región? Estas son las preguntas que guían los artículos que, desde distintas perspectivas y disciplinas, dan cuenta de cambios institucionales y retos a la sostenibilidad en este libro. Con cada contribución podemos entender mejor cómo el auge extractivo ha influenciado significativamente en la construcción institucional del Estado peruano, construcción inconclusa que plantea retos para un futuro todavía incierto.

This paper explores violent and non-violent collective action in Peru through communitylevel case studies. It tries to shed light on why widespread political violence emerged only late in the day – the 1980s – and was limited to certain regions of the country. It also asks why extreme inequality between groups has persisted for so long without violence or remedial action, and whether a weak propensity to collective action is part of the answer. The authors find significant evidence of constructive meso-level collective action and leadership; but potentially interesting action is restricted by a corrupt, selfseeking political system. In relatively fragile institutional systems, the poor find collective action more difficult and costly while the relatively well endowed with capabilities can manage it better, shedding some light on why inequality is often long lasting. When so much collective action results in only modest gains, frustration is to be expected, and the authors find that acts of ‘controlled violence’ on the part of organised communities are instruments to secure negotiation or dialogue and avoid the type of violence that is destructive in intent and based on an anarchic ideology.

This paper aims to show how, until 1980, an enormous proportion of people in Peru was disenfranchised, particularly in the periphery of the Highlands and the Rain Forest, where most indigenous people lived. Migration, the end of the estate system and the introduction of universal suffrage have progressively closed the gap in electoral participation in the country and 2new3 people, rarely found in the political arena before, are present today, mainly at the local government level. However, these changes have been very limited. Indigenous people feel alienated from political power and persistent and deep inequalities between indigenous and non-indigenous have no outlet. The appearance of Ayaipomas, Arpasis and Carhuaricras in key parts of the state administration does not appear to have been sufficient to modify the pronounced horizontal inequalities observable throughout the Peruvian data or to put this issue on the public policy agenda. This paper attempts to shed light on the mechanisms which may have prevented indigenous people from finding channels of political representation, beyond voting rights.